Futureproofing tidal power

FURURE PROOFING TIDAL POWER

HOW TECHNOLOGY CAN HELP TIDAL POWER TO REALISE ITS POTENTIAL

The UK Government estimates that tidal energy could meet around 20 per cent of the country’s electricity demands. Considering the UK is an island and entirely surrounded by water, this comes as no surprise. Despite this fortunate position, uptake of tidal power has been slow. How should we encourage the development of this promising resource?

Tidal power functions in a similar way to wind power. Tidal turbines are placed underwater where the change in tide from high to low and low to high turns the blades to produce electricity. Tidal power is more reliable than solar or wind because we can easily predict the movement of the tides, which is determined by the Moon.

However, tidal power comes with extremely high upfront costs. To make the resource more feasible, its technology needs to deliver a high performance, allowing this cost to be recovered more quickly and making tidal power more appealing.

BIOFOULING PROTECTION

Biofouling occurs when plants and animals attach themselves to underwater constructions as often seen on the hulls of ships. However, biofouling also alters the hydrodynamics of submerged tidal turbines, presenting a productivity problem.

The biofouling organisms attach themselves to the surface of turbine blades making them rougher, which increases losses due to friction and therefore reduces the efficiency of the turbine. This, in turn, will lower tidal power’s performance and make it less cost-efficient.

Antifouling methods, such as a non-toxic coating with a low friction, can prevent organisms from attaching to surfaces whilst avoiding damage to surrounding marine life. These coatings are currently used in the shipping industry, but we must explore their applications in tidal power to reduce maintenance costs and improve efficiency.

CALMING THE STORM

Protecting submerged turbines from their marine co-habitants isn’t the only step tidal power plants should take. Sudden changes in water flow can be equally challenging for tidal turbines. Although the time between high and low tide is consistent, the distance between them, known as tidal range, is not. The tides are determined by the Moon and the Sun, and in some circumstances, extreme tidal forces such as spring tides can occur.

Tidal turbines need to be able to cope with these forces, as well as any unexpected and extreme weather conditions. By placing a dynamic braking resistor (DBR) in the generation and control circuit, can protect against any excess power generated by strong currents can be safely dissipated. The turbine system will therefore be less prone to damage, increasing its performance capacity and decreasing the chance of regular repairs.

The use of Cressall’s EV2 advanced, water-cooled resistor, which is suitable for low and medium voltage applications. The range is modular, so multiple resistors can be combined to handle power outputs up to one Megawatt. The EV2 also boasts an IP56 ingress protection rating, making it able to withstand harsh marine environments and suitable for the tidal turbine application.

BLADE DEVELOPMENT

Location also plays a major role in tidal electricity generation, with generator requirements including the need for a flow speed greater than two metres per second. Locations that can offer this are limited, which is one of the reasons for tidal power’s slow uptake. In the UK, only the north coast consistently meets this requirement.

Turbine blades with a high tip-speed ratio are slimmer and produce less drag. With less drag, the turbines can achieve a larger number of rotations at a lower speed. Through the development of blades that can operate at lower flow speeds, the number of sites at which tidal power can operate can increase, making it a more viable option.

Expensive installation costs cannot be avoided when increasing tidal power. However, by investing in technological developments that ensure less maintenance, higher efficiency and increased site suitability, tidal power can realise its potential and increase the prevalence of renewables globally.

For more information on Cressall’s tidal resistor technologies click here

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A transcontinental renewable network?

A TRANSCONTINENTAL RENEWABLE NETWORK?

HOW HIGH VOLTAGE DIRECT CURRENT TRANSMISSION COULD TRANSFORM POWER SUPPLY

The SuperSmart Grid (SSG) is a theoretical concept that involves the creation of a transcontinental electricity network connecting Europe, the Middle East and North Africa to deliver low cost, high capacity, low loss electricity. To support global efforts to decarbonise power generation, could the SSG become a reality?

The SSG is a fusion of a super grid, a wide-area, often transcontinental transmission network and a smart grid, which uses digital technology, such as smart meters, to react to fluctuations in energy demand.

By implementing this system across Europe, the Middle East and Africa, this geographical area could benefit from an entirely renewable energy supply, which in turn supports the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goal Seven: ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all.

Offshore wind farms and solar power are the two resources that offer great potential, given the large number of suitable sites for both systems throughout the region. Having identified potential energy resources, how can this energy be transmitted to meet demand over such a vast area?

DEVIATING FROM THE AC NORM

High voltage direct current (HVDC) uses direct current (DC) for most electrical power transmission. Although DC is less common than standard alternating current (AC) systems, it meets the demands of the SSG for a variety of reasons.

HVDC transmission is a proven method of achieving power transmission over very long distances. It would play a vital part of the SSG, since it allows power to be transmitted from areas where it is in abundance to areas experiencing a shortage, which would secure the energy supply across the entire region. It would also facilitate the use of offshore wind farms — whose natural location is so distant from areas of electricity demand that HVDC is essential to ensuring efficient transmission.

HVDC also allows power transmission between unsynchronised AC distribution systems. AC systems operate at a set frequency and if these frequencies are different, the systems cannot be connected. HVDC circuits do not have a frequency, eliminating this problem and allowing multiple circuits to be interconnected.

Most significantly, HVDC suffers lower electrical losses than AC transmission. It has a uniform current density throughout the line, so there is no skin effect as there is in AC circuits. Although the corona effect, which is an electrical discharge that appears around a charged conductor, is still generated in a HVDC system, it is considerably lower than in AC systems, facilitating more efficient electricity transmission across the vast area encompassed by the SuperSmart Grid.

CONVERTING BACK TO AC

HVDC is ideal for transmitting over long distances, but when transmitting electricity into the local AC transmission grid, the direct current must be switched back to alternating current using a converter system. All converters, including HVDC converters, generate harmonic distortion to some degree.

If harmonics are not controlled, they can wreak havoc with the transmission system, jeopardising power quality and increasing the chances of equipment malfunction and electrical losses on the line. Therefore, it is important to integrate harmonic filters into the HVDC converter stations to block these unwanted currents.

Harmonic filters allow current at the frequency of the AC network to pass through, while redirecting distorted harmonic currents into a harmonic filter resistor, where they are dissipated as heat. This ensures that the unwanted currents are safely removed from the transmission network in a controlled way, which helps to secure the power supply when converting from DC to AC.

Although the SuperSmart Grid is purely theoretical, it’s clear that the technology necessary to realise this concept already exists. With countries all over the region setting ambitious renewable energy targets, perhaps this could be the solution to providing a secure, sustainable power source across all three continents.

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Beyond the factory floor

BEYOND THE FACTORY FLOOR

POWER RESISTORS AREN’T ONLY FOR INDUSTRIAL PLANTS

While many of us probably have a vague idea of a resistor’s function, you most likely think of them as part of an industrial plant or large-scale operation. In reality, you’re never too far away from this essential power component. Mark Barfield, engineering and R&D manager, explores the range of applications for industrial resistors.

In electronic circuits, resistors are used to reduce current flow, adjust signal levels, divide voltages and handle unnecessary influxes of power. High-power resistors that can dissipate large quantities of electrical power as heat have uses as part of motor controls, in power distribution systems or as test loads for generators.

To anybody that doesn’t possess an in-depth and technical knowledge of a resistor’s function, it may be difficult to understand how these applications are important to everyday functions.

UP AND AWAY

While a DBR may seem like a standard piece of elevator equipment, its design demands a number of variables in order to keep the lift safe and functioning. Key considerations include calculating the energy per stop, the duty cycle and the ohmic value. Once these factors have been determined, the resistor manufacturer can determine the required DBR peak and average power in order to produce the right DBR for the job.

Dynamic braking resistors (DBRs) are an essential component in elevator operations, where speed control is essential. Without them, the elevator mechanism wouldn’t slow down in the time determined by the drive, risking the lives of its passengers. When elevators and lifts descend, there is excess potential energy that usually drives the lift’s motor in reverse, making it operate like an alternator. But an alternator is responsible for charging and powering electrics, such as in an automotive charging system. This is far from what we want an elevator’s motor to do — we definitely don’t want the carriage to speed up during its descent — so this excess energy must be dissipated safely so that the elevator doesn’t descend too quickly and cause harm.

ALL ABOARD

Stopping a train also requires the dissipation of a vast amount of energy. Conventional disc brakes alone suffer a lot of wear, so dynamic braking is often used as an additional braking system to absorb the high amounts of energy generated by stopping electric trains.

Railway braking resistors operate in the same way as those on elevators. However, electrified railways also benefit from regenerative braking, where the power produced during braking is either immediately reused by other locomotives or is stored for later use. This method is particularly beneficial for intensively used underground rail services, as the generated power can be immediately fed back into the next approaching train.

Crowbar resistors, such as those supplied by Cressall, are another resistor type commonly found track side. These resistors are used in traction power supply circuits to deal with the effects of transient or longer lasting over-voltage conditions. A soft crowbar pulses to dissipate transient over-voltages, then if these persist or worsen the main breakers are opened and the system is short circuited using a hard crowbar to absorb the stored energy.

POWER PROTECTION

Power cuts are an inconvenience to anyone, at almost any time of day. But there are some buildings that cannot afford even a couple of minutes of blackout time. Take the care industry, for example. If a hospital was to plunge into darkness, surgery would be suspended, life-sustaining equipment would cut off and vulnerable patients would be placed at risk.

As a result, every hospital has a standby power supply plan in place in case of a power cut, so that the building never has to go a second without. A battery-powered uninterruptible power supply (UPS) can instantaneously take over if the regular power supply fails. In addition, most hospitals also have a diesel generator that kicks in when there isn’t a power supply from the grid. However, our fortune that power cuts are a rarity in the Western world can also be the generator’s downfall — it never has the opportunity to prove its power.

To make sure hospital generators are able to operate during power cuts, their efficiency must be tested using a fixed load bank. The load bank allows the building manager to verify the performance of emergency backup generators without interrupting ordinary power operations by regularly running on sets of at least 25 per cent of the generator’s rated power for 10-20 minutes. Running on load uses up expensive fuel, so the appropriate load for routine testing is the lowest one for the shortest time that will ensure the diesel and its ancillaries are brought up to their full working temperature.

Cressall’s load banks for fixed installations are designed as a stage bolt-on addition to the generator set, requiring a space of only 40–800 millimeters (mm) between the radiator and the acoustic splitters, making them an easy addition during any initial generator set up. Load banks are now easier than ever to operate thanks to features such as touch screen controllers and ethernet connectivity.

While power resistors may seem as though they belong in large, industrial operations, it’s never too difficult to identify where they are required in everyday life. Without this important piece of electrical equipment, many of our services that require power in order to function simply wouldn’t be safe and usable.

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Variable speed drives: the dark side

VARIABLE SPEED DRIVES: THE DARK SIDE

While labelling variable speed drives (VSDs) as the Jekyll and Hyde of industry would be extreme, it is accurate to say that they possess a, widely unknown, darker side. VSDs are rightly hailed as effective energy savers and help industrial applications to reduce their power outputs, but their impact on power quality is less often discussed. Here’s how electrical engineers can combat VSDs’ darker side.

According to ABB, the power and automation company, the addition of a VSD can reduce energy consumption by as much as 60 per cent. This means that, if a 90-kilowatt (kW) motor in continuous operation is combined with a VSD, financial savings can amass to over £9,000 per year.

A VSD can help achieve these savings by better catering for the needs of a specific application — we could refer to this as the device’s positive Dr. Jekyll side. Traditionally, induction motors run at fixed speeds and are suited to applications that require a constant motor output speed, such as in pumps or fans. Yet, sometimes, varying motor output speeds are preferable to meet the changing requirements of the load, such as in fans, pumps and precision tools.

Also known as a frequency converter or adjustable speed drive, a VSD is able to control the speed and torque of the motor to better match the process requirements of the machine it is driving. It is the slowing down, when necessary, that helps recoup energy and costs that would otherwise go to waste.

RIDING THE WAVE

Of course, the bottom line of any plant manager’s ambitions is to reduce costs and improve operational efficiency, and a VSD helps to achieve just that. While a manufacturer should not be dissuaded from purchasing VSDs for use with electrical equipment, they must pay attention to an “unwanted ingredient” that the device might add to the power mix.

When existing equipment has to share its power network with connected add-ons, harmonics can become a problem. These harmonics are voltage or current waveforms that have a different frequency to that of the network, and may cause devices to behave erratically.

The undesirable Mr. Hyde aspect of a VSD is that it can create these harmonic currents due to the conversion of an incoming alternative current (AC) waveform to a direct current (DC) source, in order to create modulated pulses that control the AC motor. This back and forth, from AC to DC, results in current waveforms that are greater than the network frequency can handle.

As a result of the unwanted currents, cables may overheat which damages their insulation. Other unwanted consequences include that motors can be at risk of overheating and becoming noisy; circuit breakers may trip; meters can give false readings; or equipment might fail altogether.

CUT THE CURRENTS

To prevent these unwanted effects from occurring, manufacturers can implement a number of techniques. Reduction is one obvious remedy, which involves the use of AC line reactors, known as chokes. These chokes are fitted either inside or outside the drive, to reduce the harmonics to a level where they no longer cause serious issues.

However, the use of a large choke can have major size and cost drawbacks, which makes the solution unsuitable for some applications. An AC choke also has a voltage drop that impacts the system.

FILTER THEM OUT

Harmonics caused by VSDs can be reduced to acceptable levels by using passive filter circuits that consist of inductors, capacitators and resistors. The filter circuit allows the fundamental frequency to pass through while diverting any harmonic frequencies to the resistor bank. Here, the frequencies are dissipated as heat and are removed from the system.

The introduction of a dampening resistor can also offer a number of benefits to the system. They include better filtering characteristics for higher frequencies, reduced amplification at parallel resonance frequency, as well as higher filter losses at the fundamental frequency.

Cressall builds discharge resistors that meet the stringent operating conditions of customers such as Siemens, Areva and also the National Grid Company, both in the UK and its counterparts overseas. Cressall’s design expertise in the field is well-known, as a result.

Based on Cressall’s experiences within the industry, perhaps the most commonly used material in the design of harmonic filter resistors is expanded mesh. This material has a high surface area, which gives it excellent heat dissipation and makes it ideal for continuous filtering duties.

The active material, insulators and mountings on expanded mesh resistor elements maximise the use of convection to avoid hot spots and local overheating. However, as the elements are thin, expanded mesh can bow when exposed to high levels of heat, and this uncontrollable bowing can cause sparks.

To remedy this, Cressall has developed a technique that allows bowing to take place in the same direction. By improving the shape of expanded mesh, the company has been able to prevent this fault from occurring so that dampening resistors made from expanded mesh can filter VSD harmonics, without the risk of sparking.

Given their many advantages, it wouldn’t be right to label VSDs as being solely a Mr. Hyde “electrical circuit villain”. After all, the additional levels of performance flexibility that the devices give to motors are essential — as are the resulting cost savings. However, to stop VSDs from drifting to the dark side, unwanted levels of harmonics must be tackled to allow for optimal performance.

To learn more about Cressall’s harmonic filtering technologies, click here

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